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50 is the new 30? and 70 is the new 60? Ageing is an inevitable part of life, but many wish they could stop or slow down the biological process. With all the new scientific developments up and coming, this begs the question: can science stop ageing? Telomeres, Senescence, and the Science of Longevity Why is ageing inevitable? Why do our bodies weaken over time, and can science intervene to slow, stop, or even reverse this process? Modern biology is beginning to unravel these questions, with particular attention on three key players: telomeres, cellular senescence, and longevity science. Telomeres Telomeres are repetitive DNA sequences that cap the ends of our chromosomes. Every time a cell divides, its telomeres get a bit shorter. Eventually, they become too short to protect the chromosome, triggering the cell to stop dividing. This limit is known as the Hayflick limit which highlights that normal human cells can only divide a finite number of times. Shortened telomeres are strongly associated with aging and agerelated diseases. In fact, people with longer telomeres tend to live longer and stay healthier. Interestingly, an enzyme called telomerase can help to rebuild telomeres, and is active in stem cells, germ cells, and certain white blood cells. However, most somatic cells (body cells) have very low telomerase activity. Cellular Senescence When telomeres become critically short it enters a state called cellular senescence. These senescent cells no longer divide however, they do not die. Instead, they secrete inflammatory signals and harmful molecules that disrupt the surrounding tissue. These “zombie cells" are increasingly believed to be major drivers of ageing and chronic diseases like arthritis, fibrosis, and even cancer. By targeting senescent cells has become a promising strategy in longevity science. Drugs called senolytics are being developed to selectively remove these dysfunctional cells, potentially reducing inflammation and rejuvating tissue. The Frontier of Longevity Science Scientist now have the view of ageing as a collection of biological processes and key areas of longevity research include: Caloric restriction and mimetics: Eating fewer calories without malnutrition extends lifespan in multiple species. Scientists are working on drugs that mimic this effect. Epigenetic reprogramming: By manipulating gene expression (without changing the DNA), researchers hope to reset cells to a more youthful state. Stem cell therapy: Replacing damaged or aged cells with healthy stem cells could regenerate tissues and organs. CRISPR and gene editing: Some labs are experimenting with editing genes involved in aging, like FOXO3 or Klotho, to boost cellular resilience. By understanding the mechanics of telomeres, senescence, and molecular aging pathways, researchers are laying the groundwork for interventions that could extend not just lifespan, but healthspan.

If you’ve received the COVID-19 vaccine, know someone treated for cancer, or have undergone an X-Ray, then your life has been influenced by HeLa cells: the first immortal human cell line. Since their discovery in 1951, their resulting advances in biomedical research have led to three Nobel prizes, vaccines that have saved millions of lives, the birth of genetic medicine, and many more crucial stepping stones in the biomedical world. Henrietta Lacks But what are these immortal ‘HeLa’ cells? And how did they become immortal? Entering John Hopkins hospital, Virginia, circa 1951, Henrietta Lacks, a young AfricanAmerican mother of 5 was seeking treatment for aggressive cervical adenocarcinoma (cancer). John Hopkins was the only nearby hospital accepting patients of colour. At the time, the standard treatment was radium therapy (this is no longer used due to the long term cell damage it causes). She never complained and always assumed that the doctors knew best. Given that patient consent wasn’t yet formally recognised, Henrietta’s gynecologist, Dr. Richard TeLinde, never asked permission to take a sample of her cervical tissue whilst she was sedated, nor to give some of it to a researcher at the hospital: Dr. George Gey. TeLinde had been taking samples for Gey from any black woman who entered the ward, without their knowledge or consent. At the time, it was believed that as these patients didn’t pay for treatment it was fair to use their bodies for research as a way of payment, regardless of the patients’ knowledge. Dr. George Otto Gey For a long time, Gey had been attempting to grow cells continuously in culture. His attempts thus far had only been unsuccessful, and he was desperate to find a cell line that would grow. Gey had developed a culture medium composed of chicken plasma, calf embryo extract and human umbilical cord blood. He kept Henrietta’s cells in this medium using ‘roller drum technique’ in which a large wooden drum holds small ‘roller tubes’ that slowly and continuously rotate. This is used to imitate the constant motion of blood and fluids in the body. Much to his surprise, the cells not only lived, but doubled every 20-24 hours! Ecstatic with this new discovery, Gey shared samples of HeLa cells with his colleagues, then the country, then the world. Multiphoton fluorescence image of HeLa cells stained with the actin- binding toxin phalloidin (red), microtubules (cyan), and cell nuclei (blue). Nikon RTS2000MP custom laser scanning microscope. Although Henrietta’s radium treatment initially shrank her tumours, they eventually took over her whole body, leaving her weak, immobile and full of agonising pain. She passed away aged 31 on the 4th of October, 1951, unknowing of the extraordinary significance her cells would hold. Beyond Henrietta’s death, HeLa cells were transported all over the globe, with over 50 million tonnes of the cells being replicated. Scientists used them for human cell and cancer research, leading to many crucial advances in technology, medicine, and biology. Over several decades, HeLa cells were: 1950s Mixed with a special liquid that allowed researchers to view and count each chromosome, leading to the discovery that humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes and the beginning of genetic medicine. Helped create the first successful polio vaccine, eventually eradicating polio altogether and saving millions of children from paralysis. Used in one of the first experiments on the effects of X-Rays on human cell growth; laying the groundwork for X-Ray safety precautions and methods practiced today. 1960s Taken aboard some of the very first space capsules; providing initial insight into how space travel would affect astronauts in future missions. Used to study the benefits of hydroxyurea in cancer treatment. Hydroxyurea is now used as a chemotherapy medication for leukemia, head and neck cancer, a painkiller for sickle cell anemia, and more. 1970s Observed to determine how salmonella infects the body; enabling development of new methods to diagnose and treat it. 1980s Used to discover the effects of HPV and how it can lead to certain cancers. Tested with a drug called ‘Camptothecin’, which was found to slow cancer growth and is now a successful form of treatment. Used to study how HIV-AIDS works; later facilitating certain drugs being developed to limit the spread of infections. 1990s – present day Used to discover telomeres; revolutionising the study of aging as we know it. Tested to unveil how thalidomide (an anti-morning sickness drug used by pregnant women) was causing birth defects; helping to end the ‘thalidomide crisis’. This study also helped apply thalidomide to stopping cancer’s effects instead. Helped develop now widely-used microscopic techniques that allow ongoing cell processes to be viewed and analysed. Used in research for the synthesis of the COVID-19 vaccine which put an end to the 2020-2021 pandemics. HeLa cell culture plate While it's important to appreciate the positive impact that these cells have caused, it also can't be forgotten where these cells came from. It wasn't until 25 years after Henrietta passed that her family first learned of how scientists were experimenting on her cells all over the world. THe Lackses were incredibly upset that their mother wasn't being recognised by the medical community. There was some debate over where the ‘HeLa’ name came from (Helen Lane? Heather Lawrence?) as Henrietta Lacks had never been formally recognised as the source of these miraculous cells. Henrietta’s true story finally came to light, 60 years later, through Rebecca Skloot’s book ‘The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks’ (I highly recommend) which was then turned into a film starring Oprah Winfrey. In the book, it was revealed that Henrietta’s family received no compensation and struggle to fund care for various medical issues, while large companies profit greatly from HeLa cells. In 2023, the Lacks family won a significant lawsuit against Thermo Fisher Scientific (a huge biotechnology company profiting greatly from Henrietta’s cells) under the claim that the company was “unjustly enriched’ by its use of HeLa cells. Some of the Lacks family with a statue of Henrietta In the future, the Lacks family’s lawyers are hoping to go after more companies profiting from Henrietta’s cells and finally bring justice to her name. Additionally, this settlement has started an important conversation around medical discrimination and giving patients a property stake in their tissues, and has brought to light many similar cases which could start unjust enrichment lawsuits just like this one.

We all know the power of social media, with it being able to reach thousands and have a significant impact, but what role does social media play in healthcare ? The importance of healthcare communications helps patients understand diagnoses, treatment plans, and medication instructions. When healthcare professionals communicate empathetically and transparently, patients feel heard and respected. This trust boosts treatment adherence and patient satisfaction. When qualified doctors are taking on social media, they can use their medical knowledge to debunk false claims and promote science and research based evidence as in the age of TikTok, YouTube, and WhatsApp, health myths spread fast. Additionally, using inclusive language and culturally sensitive approaches ensures everyone, regardless of language, background, or ability has equal access to care and understanding. Public health depends on good messaging to reach and resonate with diverse communities. For example, in 2020 the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the public health campaign of “Stay Home, Protect the NHS, Save Lives” in order to: Urge people to stay home to stop virus transmission Prevent overwhelming the NHS Emphasise the seriousness of the pandemic This highlights the importance of communications within healthcare, making sure the public is healthy and safe. ContentStudio While the majority of healthcare professionals use social media to educate, raise awareness, and connect with younger audiences, there are clear risks when boundaries are not respected. Some may argue that they may break certain confidentiality restrictions or lose focus and place a greater focus on the number of likes and shares as opposed to the patients themselves. Such as, certain plastic surgeons have been filming and sharing videos of patients being operated on. For example, Dr. Grawe, a plastic surgeon in the US, had her medical license revoked after live-streaming procedures on social media platforms. The medical board found that her actions compromised patient privacy and violated professional standards. Therefore, maintaining professionalism is key. Social media may offer an easy route to instant fame, but the responsibility that comes with being a medical professional is paramount. Doctors and other healthcare professionals must ensure that their online presence reflects the same ethical standards they uphold in their practice. However, it’s not all negative. Social media can offer a humanizing and more accessible side of healthcare that brings doctors and patients closer together which can help break down barriers and make healthcare feel more approachable.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is not a thing of the distant future anymore. From using Chat gpt to help us write our essays could we use AI as a force to reshape the way we approach medicine. From diagnosing diseases faster than ever before to discovering groundbreaking treatments, AI is revolutionizing healthcare on every level. But how exactly is this transformation happening? Faster diagnosis AI-powered tools are helping doctors diagnose conditions with speed and accuracy. For example, Google’s DeepMind developed an AI system that can detect over 50 eye diseases as accurately as world leading ophthalmologists. Algorithms trained on thousands of medical images can now detect diseases like cancer, stroke, and pneumonia, sometimes with accuracy rivaling top radiologists. This is significant because early diagnosis saves lives and reduces treatment costs, especially in under resourced healthcare settings. Personalized Medicine Using AI in healthcare allows patients' treatment plans to be tailored to them as individuals. Taking into account each patient's genetic makeup, lifestyle, and medical history. This goes beyond a one-sizefits-all approach, offering customized therapies with higher success rates. For example, AI models analyze genomic data to identify the best cancer treatments for specific patients which have increased effectiveness and fewer side effects, leading to better outcomes. Enhancing Medical Imaging & Radiology AI doesn’t just interpret medical images, it actually has the ability to improve them. Algorithms can enhance image clarity, highlight abnormalities, and even reconstruct 3D models from 2D scans. This is significant in helping radiologists detect tiny tumors that may go unnoticed by the human eye, resulting in increased precision in surgery planning and early intervention. Planning future disease outbreaks AI analyzes massive datasets to predict disease outbreaks, assess risks, and improve healthcare delivery on a population level. For example, using AI models could help predict COVID-19 and other disease epidemics that spread patterns and inform public health responses. This allows better resource allocation and prevention strategies. While the promise of AI in healthcare offers a vast range of positive improvements, we also have to consider the challenges of data protection, patient confidentiality, bias in algorithms, the ethics in decision making around health and the regulation of the role of AI in healthcare. It is necessary to have responsible innovation and clear policies for AI to be used safely and equitably in healthcare.

Hedy Lamarr: More Than Just a Pretty Face Hedy Lamarr in The Heavenly Body, 1944 When we think about WiFi, we often take for granted the invisible waves that connect our devices to the world, but did you know that a Hollywood actress played a crucial role in developing the technology that paved the way for WiFi? This is the story of Hedy Lamarr, the woman behind the 'W' in WiFi. Hedy Lamarr, born in 1914 in Vienna, Austria, was known for her stunning beauty and successful acting career. However, her contributions to technology have often been overlooked. During World War II, Lamarr and composer George Antheil developed a revolutionary frequency-hopping spread spectrum technology to use against the Nazis; this invention was designed to guide torpedoes in a way that was resistant to detection or jamming. Even if it wasn't directly implemented during the war, this technology later became the foundation for modern wireless communication systems, including WiFi, Bluetooth and GPS. Lamarr's invention was ahead of its time since it wasn't until the 1960s that engineers at Sylvania Electronic Systems Division recognized the importance of her work; her frequency-hopping idea was incorporated into a secure military communications system. In 1997, she was honored with the Electronic Frontier Foundation Pioneer Award. Posthumously, she was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2014. The top-secret patent, 1942 Hedy Lamarr's story serves as a powerful reminder of women's, often unacknowledged, contributions to technology; her work laid the groundwork for the wireless world we live in today, making her, in essence, the mother of WiFi. Lamarr once said, "The world isn't getting any easier. With all these new inventions, I believe that people are hurried more and pushed more... The hurried way is not the right way; you need time for everything: time to work, time to play, time to rest." Her words remind us to appreciate the technology that connects us, while also recognizing the need to catch a break. The next time you connect to a WiFi network, remember Hedy Lamarr; her story is a testament to the power of innovation and the importance of recognizing diverse contributions in the field of technology. The 'W' in WiFi may not officially stand for 'woman', but in spirit, it certainly does.

I bet you can picture this situation: you are drunk, you left your college dorm and now you are randomly walking with no idea of where your dorm is. Above you a beautiful bird is also flying trying to find his nest. Mathematics demonstrates that you can return to your house, but the bird can’t. The walk of a drunk person can be modelled by what is called a Markov chain*. Each step you take, you have a certain probability to go left, right, ahead or behind. And every time you take one step, it does not depend on the previous steps. We modelize the coordinates of our person by an element of ℤᵈ, where d here is either 2 (it is us, we walk on a 2D plane) or 3 (the bird can fly up and down, too, in a 3D space). What we want is to determine when our Markov chain goes through the starting point. We are going to write Xₙ, the random variable who will represent our coordinates on the nth step. A very important theorem, named Polya’s theorem, assures us that Theorem 1 Σℙ(Xₙ = 0) diverges ⇔ Xₙ goes through its starting point an infinite number of times With some combinatorics and analytics tricks, we can prove that the series diverge if and only if d=1 or d=2**. Therefore, it means that our bird, who can fly in a three-dimensional space, only goes back to its starting point in specific cases. Additionally, the higher d is, the smaller is the probability for the drunk guy, or the bird, to go back home. So the next time you wish people could have wings, you better think twice: if we could fly, we wouldn’t go back home when we are drunk! * A Markov chain is a mathematical system that undergoes transitions from one state to another within a finite or countable number of possible states. The key characteristic of a Markov chain is that the probability of transitioning to any particular state depends only on the current state and not on the sequence of states that preceded it ** The variable d refers to the dimension of space in which the random walk occurs d=1: the walk is in a one-dimensional line d=2: the walk is in a two-dimensional plane d=3: the walk is in three-dimensional space

Our feeble minds cannot grasp the complex boundaries of galactic bodies. No likeness from beginning to end of a star’s life. The tapestry of star formation starts from the abundances of gasses to form the young protostars; which in itself holds a fascinating niche. Studies that snapshot these moments provide valuable insight to existing research and prevent oversight. NASA is no different with studying protostar cluster IRAS 23385+6053 to better comprehend the various chemical processes and its composition; holding significant chemistry that is often overlooked. Protostars are young stars that continue to develop under the masses of their parent interstellar clouds. Significantly, a representation of an early phase of a developing star that could become a much larger star. In cases such as IRAS 23385+6053, the mass is a furnace of chemical reactions catalyzed from high temperatures and densities. Under these conditions, it sets up the formation of a wide range of molecules, from diatomic species to complex organic compounds. IRAS 23385+6053, The Astrophysical Journal Letters, 1998 In the Cygnus X-1 region of the Milky Way, distinctive for the location of the swan constellation known as Cygnus; IRAS 23385+6053 is in a hotpot of tremendous amounts of gas. There are many devices such as Atacama Large Millimeter/ submillimeter Array (ALMA) and NASA's Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) issuing an explicit spectra, indicating the variety of lights that are being emitted in a given sample. This sample can reveal wavelengths, elements, densities, magnetic fields, etc. Specifically in this chemical rich environment, the data reveals the presence of numerous molecules such as carbon monoxide (CO), formaldehyde (H2CO), methane (CH4), methanol (CH3OH), acetic acid (CH3COOH), and many others. Such complex organic molecules (COMs) are a stirring pot to star formation. Many COMs hold a foundation in star development, creating structure, establishing temperatures and characteristics that apply to the protostar. Many of these familiar gasses are often overlooked for their great significance in star formation. Methane (CH4) is a colorless and odorless gas used to fuel heat and light in everyday appliances. For a protostar like IRAS 23385+6053, methane is located in the warmer regions of the protostar cluster. It consists of a single saturated hydrocarbon that acts as a coolant for the collapse of interstellar clouds because of its absorption of thermal energy from collision-induced emissions. Traces of methane equate to the protostar just being in its beginning stages. Essentially, methane is one of the most simple compounds that a gas can form into as being a precursor to more complex structures. This is the same gas that is released from cows’ stomachs, yet it holds a significant value to the embryonic stages of a protostar. Methanol (CH3OH) is another molecule that has uses in everyday materials such as synthetic fabrics and fibers for polyester, which later came to produce clothing. Under IRAS 23385+6053, methanol forms on icy surfaces of grainy dust then under thermal desorption, methanol can be released into a gas; essentially from solid ice into a gas. Although it is a relatively simple organic molecule, methanol is one of the largest molecules ever found in these developing stages. This is the same gas that could be found in fruits and vegetables in low quantities. Organic molecules in the surroundings of two protostar, James Webb Space Telescope In IRAS 23385+6053, other complex organic molecules (COMs) such as dimethyl ether (CH3OCH3) and methyl formate (HCOOCH3) are prebiotic, indicating the potential foundation for life. Especially for the potential to create amino acids and sugars that could be synthesized before the birth of planets. However, for such evolution, to create even more complex molecules from the other existing ones listed, chemical reactions are required: gas-phase reactions and grain-surface chemistry. The creation of methyl formate occurs with the reaction of methanol and formic acid on dust grains. Once these dust grains form, these molecules can be heated into its gas phase. Then this existing gas can react to other gasses to continue making more complex gasses in its timely manner. Astrochemists cannot observe these reactions first hand; comprehending the IRAS 23385+6053’s chemistry requires specialists to observe through modeling and instrument usage. Models can simulate the physical consciousness in protostellar settings, and recognize factors: density, radiation fields, and temperatures. Through observational data, astrochemists can infer about these processes and create predictions in hopes to accurately depict the conditions in IRAS 23385+6053. Modeling has assisted in elucidating the understanding of shocks and UV radiation in shaping its chemical landscape. Shocks are when fastmoving particles clash with another object (e.g. clouds of gas, magnetic fields) which abruptly decreases the particles’ speed and a shock wave occurs. A release of energy occurs in this collision. UV radiation influences from hot stellar objects can alter and accelerate reactions or lead to photodissociation, where compounds can degrade into photons. Models should be able to display such phenomena to show their understanding of overlooked chemistries. Region near the IRAS 23385+6053, James Webb Space Telescope The study of IRAS 23385+6053 is very significant in understanding a star’s life. The chemical composition of protostellar environments creates the beginnings of forming bigger stellar systems, and eventually including other galaxy structures. Recognizing the presence of the existing molecules in protostars can relay patterns and conclusions that can be found upon other cases. Insights of these given conditions lead to better comprehension of the development of massive stars. These massive stars display the evolution and age of galaxies and the various changes in chemistry that would lead to feedback processes: wind, radiation, and supernova explosions. The IRAS 23385+6053 study provides a fascinating case of chemical processes of a protostar’s beginning life. Overlooked information leads to mishaps and broadness that shrinks understanding. Being able to take in the smaller details enhances mastery of a topic, especially as complex as astronomy. Astronomy continues to be a mystery but with careful speculation, these mysteries can be unraveled. Bibliography https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998ApJ...505L..39M/abstract   https://science.nasa.gov/missions/webb/cheers-nasas-webb-finds-ethanol-other-icy-ingredients-for-worlds/   https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20000057044/downloads/20000057044.pdf   https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/cheers-nasas-webb-finds-ethanol-other-icy-ingredients-for-worlds/

For those who menstruate, menstrual health plays a large factor in their overall health and mental well being. Menstrual health impacts the daily lives of about 26% of the global population. By taking the time to understand the not-so-complex world of the menstrual cycle, individuals can identify what is normal or abnormal about their periods, leading to a healthier life. What is a menstrual cycle? Phases of menstrual cycle, Tom Organic A basic menstrual cycle overview is divided into four phases: menstruation, the follicular phase, ovulation and the luteal phase. The menstruation phase, more popularly known as the period, is the part of your cycle when the uterus sheds its lining (endometrium) and allows the blood to exit the body through the vagina. This stage lasts about 4-7 days, depending on the person. The follicular phase begins on the first day of your menstruation phase, and lasts about 13-14 days. So, there’s a bit of an overlap there. In this phase, your hormone level begins to change and that causes the lining of your uterus to thicken and follicles begin to grow on the surface of the ovaries. Typically, only one follicle will grow and mature into an egg. The ovulation phase is when the mature egg is released from the ovary. This phase occurs once a month, and usually two weeks before the next period begins. At this phase, an individual is more likely to become pregnant, so it's best to stay cautious around this time! Lastly, the luteal phase is when the egg travels through the fallopian tubes to your uterus. At this phase, the endometrium continues to thicken to prepare for a possible pregnancy. In the case that a sperm meets the egg, the individual falls pregnant, and won’t have a period until after the pregnancy. Common Menstrual Disorders There are many menstrual disorders that affect the lives of thousands. Some of these disorders can affect not only the physical aspect of an individual's life, but also the mental aspect. Dysmenorrhea is a severe and frequent cramping during menstruation. Pain will occur in the lower abdomen, but it can spread to the lower back and thighs. Dysmenorrhea is divided into two sectors: primary and secondary. The primary one is diagnosed when the cramps occur from contractions in the uterus and become more severe during heavy bleeding. The secondary one is diagnosed when the cramping is associated with another menstrual disorder like endometriosis or uterine fibroids. Menorrhagia is when the uterus excretes an excessive amount of menstrual blood. Menstrual flow will last longer and is much heavier than the usual. The flow is able to soak through more than 5 sanitary products per day, and often requires more frequent changing. Amenorrhea is the absence of a menstrual cycle. Like Dysmenorrhea, it is divided into two sectors: primary and secondary. Primary Amenorrhea refers to when a girl does not start to menstruate by the age of 16. Secondary Amenorrhea is when in a girl who previously had a normal menstrual cycle it suddenly stops for at least 3 months. Recognizing Symptoms and When to See a Doctor If you recognize any of the following symptoms, it is best to book an appointment with your OB/ GYN or family doctor. Dysmenorrhea: Cramping in the lower abdomen, pain in the lower abdomen, low back pain, pain radiating down the legs, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Menorrhagia: Soaking through one or more sanitary pads or tampons every hour for several hours in a row, needing double sanitary protection to control your menstrual flow, getting up at night to change sanitary pads or tampons, and bleeding for more than a week. Amenorrhea: Excess body hair (hirsutism), hair loss, headache, lack of breast development, milky discharge from the breasts, and vision changes. Managing Menstrual Health Menstrual health, UNFPA AsiaPacific Managing your menstrual health is important. It can help evaluate any pain, discomfort, or stress that comes with your menstrual cycle. The good thing about managing your menstrual health is that it comes down to you and how you know your body. Whatever works for you may not work for others, and that's okay! As long as you know how to manage it, that's what really matters. Studies have shown that getting regular exercise, changing your eating habits, and reducing your cortisol levels may help with menstrual symptoms, such as cramping and fatigue. It is also best to contact your family doctor or OB/GYN if you are eligible to take an over-the-counter medication to help relieve any symptoms of menstruation. Remember, taking charge of your menstrual health is a powerful step towards overall well-being, don’t hesitate to seek the support and answers you deserve. Bibliography https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/report/menstrual-disorders https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/dysmenorrhea https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/amenorrhea https://www.healthlinkbc.ca/illnesses-conditions/sexual-reproductive-health/normalmenstrualcycle#:~:text=Getting%20regular%20exercise%2C%20eating%20a,help%20relieve%20your%20menstrual%20symptoms

Have you ever wondered how our body creates scabs? What about when it all goes wrong? If so, the clotting cascade is your answer! The clotting cascade is a sequence of proteins that activate one another to stop us from bleeding out and, eventually, they help us form a clot. However, when we lack certain proteins within this cascade, it can cause us to bleed out or produce unwanted clots. A prime example of a clotting disease is Haemophilia A which is a deficiency in factor VIII (8). The clotting cascade Simplified diagram of the clotting cascade, Kshiraja Dighe For some context, there are 3 pathways within the clotting cascade. The intrinsic, extrinsic and common pathway. The intrinsic and extrinsic pathways are activated in different instances. For example, when blood is exposed to collagen due to endothelial cell damage (the cells in the inner portion of a blood vessel), that’s when the intrinsic pathway is activated. However, when tissue factor is released from the endothelial cells, the extrinsic pathway is activated. Both pathways lead to the common pathway which eventually causes a fibrin clot to form. This clot, when stabilised with factor XIII (13), stops the bleeding. Factor VIII Factor VIII (8) is a well-known factor within the intrinsic pathway which brings activated factor IX (9) and factor X (10) together to activate factor X and therefore, activate the common pathway. A decrease in this factor means the common pathway cannot be activated. This results in a fibrin clot that can’t be formed and so a patient will keep bleeding. Symptoms Common symptoms of haemophilia A is internal bleeding, excessive bleeding post surgery, bruising, joint pain and many more upsetting symptoms. Diagnostic test In the lab, we test for factor VIII by centrifuging the blood sample (spinning the sample at a high speed to separate the contents). We take the plasma out and run a factor VIII assay on the plasma. This assay typically measures the optical density of factor VIII by using a reagent that contains all factors but factor VIII. In this way, no other factor deficiencies can affect the test result. The optical density of the plasma is measured and using a standard curve, the approximate amount of factor VIII in the sample is calculated. Treatment One of the treatments for Haemophilia A includes Emicizumab which is a monoclonal antibody (lab-made antibodies that act like real antibodies in the body). This replaces the function of factor VIII by bringing activated factor IX and factor X together to mimic the natural reaction and induce activation of the common pathway. In this way, the clotting cascade is continued and patients don’t bleed out! Conclusion Haemophilia bleeding, HTI centers Luckily, there is a lot of promising research being published for people with blood disorders and many new treatments who could help patients. In conclusion, without the clotting cascade, our body would not be able to fix wounds for us. So next time your body patches up a wound, remember to say thank you to it! Bibliography Biorender (2024). BioRender. [online] www.biorender.com. Available at: https://www.biorender.com/. Chaudhry, R. and Babiker, H.M. (2019). Physiology, Coagulation Pathways. [online] Nih.gov. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482253/.go.drugbank.com . (n.d.) Emicizumab. [online] Available at: https://go.drugbank.com/drugs/DB13923. GOSH Hospital site. (2024). Haemophilia A. [online] Available at: https://www.gosh.nhs.uk/conditions-and-treatments/conditions-we-treat/haemophilia-0/ .

What is Halley’s comet?  Halley's Comet, also known as 1P/Halley, is a short-period comet visible from Earth approximately every 75-76 years. It is one of the most famous comets in history, named after the English astronomer Edmond Halley who calculated its orbit. The comet's last appearance was in 1986, and it is expected to return to the inner Solar System in 2061.  Bayeux Tapestry, scene 32, XI century Where can we find Halley Comet in pop culture?  Comets have been observed by humanity for thousands of years and because they disturbed the harmony of the starry sky, they were soon deemed to be a bad omen. Halley's Comet has been represented since the early ages, in particular, its appearance in 1066 won her a place in the famous Bayeux tapestry, a long, narrow strip of coarse linen (70 metres by 51 centimetres), which is displayed in a special museum in Normandy. It unfolds the tale of the 1066 conquest of England by the Duke of Normandy. In a segment depicting the incoronation of the Anglo-Saxon king, Harold, two men point at the sky where we can notice the comet, which is seen as a bad omen, as a matter of fact, the new king will soon be killed in the battle of Hastings by the Normans. Ever since, the comet has made appearances in many more masterpieces of literature, cinema, television and music and has even been featured in softwares. For example, regarding literature, Arthur C. Clarke's "2061: Odyssey Three" includes a detailed mission to the comet. Focusing on cinema, the Mexican film "Halley" is inspired by the passage of the comet, using it as a symbol of the cyclical nature of human life, even though Halley's Comet is never mentioned in any of the dialogues. When it comes to music, the first song that might come to your mind is Billie Eilish's "Halley's Comet," featured on her album "Happier Than Ever", which the singer herself describes as a “sweet, romantic song” and is about “falling in love and feeling a feeling of euphoria, like you’re floating”. Why is Halley’s comet so famous?   Halley’s comet, W. Liller, Easter Island, 1986 Halley's Comet has achieved its legendary status for several reasons. Firstly, it is one of the few comets visible to the naked eye from Earth, making it accessible to the general public. Secondly, its predictable 75-76 year orbit allows for anticipation and planning of its appearances, creating a sense of cyclical wonder across generations. Lastly, its long history of recorded sightings, dating back to at least 240 BCE, has cemented its place in human culture and scientific understanding. However the comet's cultural significance extends beyond its scientific importance, its periodic appearance have often been interpreted as omens or harbingers of change throughout history. In conclusion, as we already mentioned this enduring fascination with Halley's Comet has inspired countless works of art, literature, and music, further solidifying its place in the collective human imagination.