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This paper explores the impact of vaping from a young age on attention span and cognitive development. With an increasing number of adolescents engaging in e-cigarette use, it is essential to investigate how nicotine affects their developing brains. The study examines neurobiological impacts, such as alterations in neuroplasticity, attention processing, and memory function, alongside psychosocial outcomes, including dependency and academic performance. Findings suggest that vaping from a young age compromises attentional capacity, contributes to attention deficit-like symptoms, and impairs memory formation. The paper emphasizes the urgent need for public health initiatives aimed at reducing youth exposure to nicotine. In recent years, electronic cigarettes, or “vapes”, have become prevalent among adolescents, a demographic particularly vulnerable to nicotine addiction. Though initially promoted as a safer alternative to traditional cigarettes, vaping has raised new public health concerns. Adolescents represent a critical group for studying the impacts of nicotine exposure due to the ongoing development of cognitive systems. Of specific concern is how nicotine consumption from vaping may compromise attentional processes, vital for academic success, personal growth, and overall wellbeing. Understanding these effects provides insights for addressing public health risks associated with vaping in younger populations. Nicotine's Effect on Adolescent Neurodevelopment The adolescent brain undergoes significant structural and functional changes, notably in the prefrontal cortex and limbic system, regions responsible for impulse control, memory, and attention. Nicotine affects these regions by binding to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, which stimulate dopamine release. This “reward” feedback can disrupt normal neurotransmission and reinforce addictive behaviors. Vaping and Attention Deficits Early research on nicotine and attention underscores that nicotine exposure in youth impairs cognitive flexibility and attention, similar to symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Findings indicate that young users exhibit lower performance on attentional tasks compared to non-users, with deficits in sustained attention and working memory. The neural changes triggered by nicotine, particularly in the prefrontal cortex, may cause young users to develop attentional vulnerabilities. Nicotine and Memory Impairment Nicotine influences the hippocampus, a brain region critical for memory formation and retention. Studies suggest that vaping affects long-term potentiation (LTP), a key process for encoding memories, resulting in compromised memory performance. Impaired memory affects attention indirectly, as individuals may struggle to retain focus due to difficulties in recalling previous information. To assess vaping’s impact on adolescent attention span, this study analyzed data from 1,000 adolescents aged 13-18, comprising both vapers and non-vapers. Participants underwent a battery of cognitive tests designed to measure attentional capacity, working memory, and reaction time. Additionally, self-reported surveys gathered data on nicotine use, academic performance, sleep patterns, and symptoms associated with attention deficits. Neuroimaging Data Collection A subset of participants (n=100) also underwent functional MRI (fMRI) scans to measure activity in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus during attention and memory tasks. This allowed for a direct observation of neurobiological differences correlated with vaping behavior. Attentional Deficits in Young Vapers Analysis revealed that adolescent vapers scored significantly lower on sustained attention and reaction time tasks compared to their non-vaping peers (p < 0.01). Vapers also demonstrated higher rates of inattention and impulsivity as measured by the ADHD Rating Scale, suggesting that nicotine may contribute to attention-deficitlike symptoms. Neurobiological Changes in Vapers fMRI scans indicated reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus during attention tasks among vapers, supporting the hypothesis that nicotine disrupts neural pathways essential for focus and memory. These findings align with prior studies linking nicotine exposure to compromised neuroplasticity, reinforcing the long-term risks of adolescent vaping on cognitive functions. Memory Impairments and Academic Consequences Vapers scored lower on working memory and retention tasks, with a 15% decrease in task accuracy compared to non-users. This memory impairment has practical implications, as it often correlates with lower academic performance. Self-reported survey data showed that vapers were more likely to report difficulties with school assignments and exams, attributing challenges to reduced focus and forgetfulness. The Neuropsychological Risks of Vaping for Youth These results underscore the neuropsychological risks of adolescent vaping. Nicotine’s ability to interfere with the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus compromises attention and memory, skills essential for academic success and social development. The study's findings align with existing literature on adolescent neurodevelopment, which warns that any disruption to cognitive growth during this period may yield long-term consequences. Implications for Public Health and Education The prevalence of vaping among adolescents calls for immediate action to mitigate these cognitive risks. Schools, parents, and health organizations play critical roles in educating youth about vaping's impact on attention and learning capacity. Interventions that combine education, behavioral therapies, and regulatory policies can help reduce adolescent nicotine exposure and protect brain development. Interview Interviewer : Thank you for joining us today. To start, could you share a bit about when you began vaping and what got you into it? Patient : Sure, happy to share. I started vaping when I was about 15. It was pretty common among my friends, and we didn’t really think it was dangerous. It seemed less harmful than smoking, and honestly, it was just everywhere at school. So, it just sort of became something I did regularly. Interviewer : How soon did you start noticing any effects on your attention span or focus? Patient : I think it took a few months, but it really started to hit when I was in class. I noticed I couldn’t concentrate like I used to. My grades started slipping, and I’d get frustrated easily because I felt restless and couldn’t stay focused. I’d start zoning out during lectures, and it was just hard to stay engaged with anything for long. Interviewer : Did you notice any changes in your memory or ability to retain information? Patient : Yes, that was actually one of the biggest problems. I’d study for hours, but then I couldn’t remember any of it during exams. Even if I wrote notes, I’d forget where I put them or mix up details. It was like my brain couldn’t hold onto information, and that made studying really stressful. Interviewer : That must have been difficult. Did you also experience any symptoms of withdrawal or irritability if you didn’t vape for a while? Patient : Definitely. If I went without vaping, I’d get really antsy and irritable. It was like this constant need for a break to vape. I couldn’t just sit through an hour-long class without feeling like I needed it, which only made focusing even harder. It was affecting my sleep, too, which I’m sure didn’t help with concentration during the day. Interviewer : How did these issues impact your daily life, outside of school? Patient : It definitely impacted my social life and mood. I’d get frustrated with myself for not being able to remember things or focus on conversations. Even when I’d hang out with friends or family, I’d zone out or feel like I wasn’t present. Eventually, it affected my confidence because I felt like I was struggling to keep up, mentally. Interviewer : That sounds really challenging. How did you eventually decide to quit, and what was that process like for you? Patient : I realized I needed to quit after a conversation with my doctor about the longterm effects on my brain. It wasn’t easy, though. I had to go through withdrawal symptoms, like feeling even more restless and anxious at first. But over time, I felt more focused and clear-headed. My memory started improving, and my mood got better. It took a lot of effort and support, but I’m glad I made the decision. Interviewer : What advice would you give to other young people who might be considering vaping or struggling with similar issues? Patient : I’d say, don’t underestimate how much it can mess with your mind. I didn’t think vaping would have such a big impact on my attention or memory, but it did. If you’re vaping, take a step back and think about whether it’s really worth it. And if you’re struggling, reach out for support. Quitting can feel hard, but it’s definitely worth it for your mental health and focus. Interviewer : Thank you so much for sharing your experience. I think your story will resonate with a lot of young people. Patient : Thank you. If sharing my experience helps someone else avoid or overcome this, I’m glad to help. This study highlights that vaping from a young age impairs attention span, memory formation, and overall cognitive development, posing a threat to the academic and social success of adolescents. These effects underscore the urgent need for comprehensive public health initiatives to curb vaping among youth. Future research should continue to explore the neurobiological underpinnings of nicotine exposure in young users and develop targeted interventions to counter these adverse effects. By prioritizing youth education and support, society can better protect young minds from the cognitive risks associated with vaping.

CERN, which is the largest organisation for particle physics, is planning to close in July 2026, which will be it’s third long shutdown (LS3), to increase the Large Hadron Collider’s (LHC’s) luminosity. World's largest superconducting magnet https://home.cern What does this mean for the collider? Well, an increase of luminosity means a reduction of the size of the beam at the collision point within a detector, and luminosity is proportional to the number of collisions per unit time, meaning the detectors can observe more data to analyse rare processes. Since the phenomena scientists want to see has an extremely low probability of occurring, therefore the more data available to observe allows for more potential occurrences, so the scientists can have a better understanding of what is happening. The collider is planned to be closed for 4 years, only reopening in mid-2030, and during this time, many engineers and physicists will work together to ensure that the High Luminosity upgrade will be done correctly and effectively. Work has already started on the collider, in April 2018 an 80 metre shaft was dug, as well as 300 metre service tunnels at the sites of ATLAS and CMS. Four connections have been made between the new and old infrastructure, as well as 5 surface buildings to house electrical, cryogenic, and cooling and ventilation systems for the new HL-LHC equipment. Equipment is currently being manufactured in Europe, Japan, the United States, China, and Canada. Each of the experiments will be getting upgraded to handle the increase of data by HL-LHC. When the collider undergoes it’s third long shutdown, most of the work will take place on the actual collider, given that it won’t be running for approximately 4 years. The upgrade is set to cost approximately 1 billion Swiss Francs (1.2 billion USD) from 2015 to 2029 and will also receive contributions from global laboratories. CERN is supported by 20 countries; therefore this international collaboration will benefit everyone involved and the rest of the world. The HL-LHC will allow for more training for physicists, engineers and technicians. At the moment, there are more than 200 bachelor’s students, master’s students, doctoral students, postdoctoral researchers, and fellow researchers participating in the project. There will be many jobs provided by the upgrade, as there are major civil engineering projects happening, and teams of technicians and physicists will be working together to ensure the project is carried out successfully. The HL-LHC aims to improve fundamental knowledge, which is the main mission of CERN. To develop the HL-LHC, CERN will push several commonly used technologies, such as superconductors, vacuum technologies, computing, electronics, and industrial processes. The greater knowledge of these technologies means that these innovations can be better integrated into our daily lives. For example, an increase of knowledge of superconducting applications in medical imaging means better cancer diagnosing, and treatment using particle beams (hadron therapy).

Introduction The scientific debate over alcoholism leaves people divided. As you may expect, there is significant evidence proving that environmental and social factors encountered throughout a person’s lifetime play a huge role in one’s risk of developing Alcoholism Use Disorder (AUD). Contrary to popular belief, there is also significant evidence to prove that genetics may provide a predisposition to AUD which will be discussed in this article. Investigations so far (primarily involving monozygotic and dizygotic twins) have found that the risk of developing AUD is 50-60% related to your genetics and 40-50% related to psychosocial factors. The Dopamine Dilemma Dopamine is a crucial neurotransmitter in understanding addiction. Dopamine is the “chemical messenger” giving you that “feel good feeling” when petting a dog, hearing your favourite song, receiving a compliment or parallel parking on the first try, however substance abuse elicits this same chemical response. When consumed, alcohol activates certain opioid receptors concentrated in a group of subcortical nuclei (responsible in the brain for executive function and emotional behaviors). When these opioid receptors are stimulated, dopamine is released, forming an association between alcohol and reward. When an individual then encounters a cue that predicts reward, previously enforced by that alcoholdopamine association, a psychological mechanism called “Incentive Salience” is triggered which contributes to abusive alcohol consumption. Now that you have a brief understanding of how the brain’s reward system responds to alcohol, we can delve into what exactly a genetic predisposition to alcohol entails. DRD2: The gene that makes happy hour too happy The gene encoding for the dopamine D2 receptor (the 2nd of the 5 dopamine receptor subtypes) is called DRD2, associated with increased alcohol consumption, through methods involving incentive salience. But why does this vary between individuals? We all possess the DRD2 gene but the nucleotides it is composed of vary. A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) is a genetic variation at a single position in the DNA sequence. If an SNP occurs within DRD2, its genetic sequence changes and the Dopamine receptor’s structure and function may be altered, affecting its behavior. A preliminary study investigating how specific SNPs are related to alcoholism was conducted by the National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre (NDDTC) in New Delhi and documented at the BMC Medical Genetics journal. The study involved 90 alcoholics and 60 unrelated, age-matched control subjects; DNA was collected from each participant and then genotyping techniques were used to extract the variation in the DRD2 gene in each individual. The identified SNPs were then compared between alcohol dependent and control subjects. They found a strong link between the –141Cins allele and alcohol dependance and a possible link between the TaqlA1 allele (a polymorphism located within the DRD2 gene) and AUD. The combination of both alleles present in an individual increased risk of developing AUD by 250%. Not only this, TaqlA1 is a variant of an SNP associated with lower dopamine reception- leading to weaker dopamine signaling in response to reward stimuli, increasing susceptibility to alcohol dependency as people may seek stronger stimuli to compensate. Can you undo that genetic cocktail you were born with? SNP, the conversation.com In short, no you cannot. In terms of genetic inheritance, SNPs are passed down from parents to children, just like height or eye colour causing a genetic predisposition to AUD. Interestingly, some SNPs once provided an advantage like disease resistance and therefore persist in populations. But blaming evolution for your drinking habits? Darwin would like a word. These evolutionary differences mean genes related to AUD vary within cultures. The experiment conducted by the NDDTC only involved participants of Indian descent making their results unapplicable to all regions. In fact, other experiments documented that showed positive results for European or European American populations but generally negative findings for studies conducted with a Taiwanese population. Conclusion comparison between alcohol-dependant patients and control subjects, Longdom Publishing SL While Psychosocial factors undeniably influence alcohol consumption, the correlation between genetics and AUD cannot be ignored. Research into the DRD2 gene and relevant SNPs highlights how genetic variations can impact dopamine signaling and subsequently AUD. Understanding the neurological and genetic underpinnings is crucial for prevention and treatment of alcohol abuse. Though we cannot currently change the genetic “cocktail” we are born with, developing genetic engineering technology may make that possible in the near future, allowing for personalised interventions to mitigate the risks associated with genetic predispositions. But generally, an understanding of both the genetic and environmental factors will allow an individual to make informed decisions relating to alcohol consumption. So no, you cannot entirely blame your ancestors for your hangover, though they may have passed down the love for “just one more”.

Love is a universal human experience that has long been regarded as one of the most mysterious and powerful emotions across every aspect of our existence. With this complex emotion underlying the brain, neuroscience provides new insights into how love manifests in our brain. By examining and understanding the neural mechanisms involved, the emerging field of neuroscience explores the study of love and the brain, uncovering one of the most discrete areas that drive human connection and feelings. Early Stages of Love To fall in love is to feel the release of adrenaline. Beginning with just a simple crush can trigger the hormones that flood our brain, causing the production of physical and emotional responses. Both sweaty palms, racing hearts, flushed cheeks, and the feelings of passion and anxiety are the trigger responses our brain can offspring when falling in love. Feelings are tense and you are helpless when you have fallen. These are the early stages of love. “And from a neuroscientific viewpoint, we can really say that love blossoms in the brain,” states neuroscientist Stephanie Cacioppo, PhD, author Wired for Love: A Neuroscientist’s Journey Through Romance, Loss, and the Essence of Human Connection (Macmillan, 2022). As much as we think euphoric love can be, it's an undeniable feeling that consumes us in every possible way, and it begins with the brain. The early stages of romance can be described as an intoxicating and infatuating feeling, expressed as deep desire and euphoria. The reasoning behind this sudden lovestruck is the stimulation of the reward system in our brain. The reward system of the brain is like a drug; it can easily be triggered with an addiction. The reward system is summarized as oxytocin, vasopressin, norepinephrine, and especially dopamine. Due to the stimulated reward system built in our brain, the romance we feel with an individual captivates us to feel addicted. The vision we see through them is in “rose-colored glasses”. This intense and thrilling feeling triggered by the reward system in our brain causes us to occupy our thoughts with the person we’re in love with. It’s an undeniable and helpless feeling to be in love, for sure. Connections defined by neurotransmitters Your Brain on Love, Meet Mindful As we delve into the early stages of love, a very primitive part of the brain’s reward system is activated. This sudden activation in the rewards system tells us that romantic love is a drive to basic need. The mesolimbic system (reward system), which is in the midbrain, releases several neurotransmitters of dopamine and norepinephrine. The release of dopamine is caused by experiences of pleasurable stimuli, including falling in love. The release of norepinephrine causes energy levels to rise in abundance and a general sense of excitement. With the combination of the two neurotransmitters; dopamine and norepinephrine, they forge a dynamic “honeymoon phase” effect that is characterized as absolute euphoria. Dopamine is the drive to pursue your love interest with norepinephrine acting like butterflies in your stomach. As dopamine and norepinephrine release, two important hormones intertwine: oxytocin and vasopressin. Oxytocin is a chemical that is released from the brain’s hypothalamus. Oxytocin is sometimes referred to as the “cuddle hormone” to promote bonding and chemical connection. Vasopressin, also released from the brain’s hypothalamus, is dignified to play a role in social bonding. The merging between these two hormones often works together to create defensive aggression as a coping mechanism. To add, another chemical that is released when the reward system of the brain is triggered is serotonin. As we all know, serotonin is a neurotransmitter that is used to regulate and balance emotion levels. Serotonin is a feeling that tends to fluctuate in the early stages of love and it is strong. Many studies have shown that serotonin levels in newly in love people is equivalent to serotonin levels in individuals with obsessive compulsive disorder. This information explains why early romance is known to feel intense. As you fall in love, the brain floods itself with chemicals that create feelings of pleasure, infatuation, and motivation. They combine altogether to foster social connections by reshaping your brain when you are in love. As love is a complex emotion, so are the works of the brain when you are in love. Connections activated by brain regions In addition to the romantic and daring feelings of first love, there is to know that love also deactivates the neural pathways that are responsible for making critical assessments on others. Love makes us blind and makes us forget about all the negative ideas of someone we’re in love with. You may question, what are these neural pathways and regions of the brain? Together, they work to infuse the emotions we radiate in love. To begin with, the ventral tegmental is quite an active area seeking an experience of romantic attraction. The VTA is responsible for producing dopamine by seeking social bonding and driving us to pursue the love we long for. The VTA influences our likes, dislikes, addictions, and stress management. It is no wonder why love is identical to such feelings as these. Other regions of the brain that are affected by love include the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex. Love in the brain is not just simply infatuated with addiction but also help to process these complex emotions. Good thing the amygdala guides us to process these emotions we feel. This is relevant due to the powerful associations made during the early stages of love. Another region of the brain that guide us to confusing emotions with romance is the hypothalamus. This region of the brain aims to focus on regulating our emotions and emotional bonds. It helps orchestrate our body’s response to love including physiological changes of increased heart rate and body temperature. When in love, the hippocampus plays a role in processing our complex emotions and molding them into long-term memories related to those intense feelings. To extend, the hippocampus is sensitive to ideas that induce pleasure,including the idea of love. To include surrounding areas of the brain region, the prefrontal cortex also plays a role when falling in love. This region in the brain is responsible for decision-making and for rational thoughts. When you’re in the spotlight of infatuation; the area of this brain tends to slow down and decrease the negative judgements of the person you’re in love with. Although, the increase in susceptibility takes over, overlooking your significant one’s flaws. When experiencing romantic love, specific brain regions activate and harmonize together to contribute to the reward system in our brain. Brain regions tackle our intense emotions when in love and it is significant to know what their responsibilities are in the presence of romance. Long-term Attachments Bilingual Brains Build Stronger Connections, Neuroscience News There is an evitable change over time from passionate love to compassionate love. As early stages of romance become a passerby, feelings and emotions change over time. It is crucial to know that compassionate love is deep, but incomparable to the early stages of love. In 2011, a study from Stoney Brook University, New York, shares that it is possible to be in love with someone after many years of marriage. To delve deeper, this research included MRI scans on couples who had been in love for many years. They found the same intensity of dopamine as found in the brains of couples who were newly in love. You may wonder, why is this? The passion of romance remains, but the stress component of early love goes away over time. This is caused by the neutralization of serotonin levels and the effects of oxytocin. The interaction between vasopressin and oxytocin work together to maintain romantic love. Love over time lets us see our partner in a way that nobody else can. We begin to understand their emotions and perspective, with the increased in bonding over time. Thomas Sherman, Professor at the School of Medicine, states, “You could say that love begins as a stressor, but then love becomes a buffer against stress.” (Djanpranata, 2024). Though feelings come by and go, long-term attachments are possible, and they continue to thrive for many long-term relationships. Benefits of Long-term Attachments Many benefits radiate in eternal love. Longterm love is the foundation of a healthy lifestyle and promising fulfillments. In the brain, long-term love is beneficial as it increases the cognitive area of the brain. This area can be justified as the angular gyrus. This region is associated with complex language functions and the mirror neuron system, an area that enables you to anticipate one’s actions. The angular gyrus contributes to the development of cohesive narrative in one’s romance. The complex language functions participate in one’s romance by facilitating the sharing of thoughts and feelings. With this, the complex language system strengthens deep emotional connections and intimacy between you and your lover. This system fosters mutual connections and a deep understanding in each other’s minds. The mirror neuron system enables empathy and understanding in romance. The responsibility of mirror neurons is to help couples understand each other’s emotions, fostering empathy and strengthening emotional connection between the two. Mirror neurons create a sense of safety and security in relationships. Harmonized as one, the complex language and the mirror neuron system seek to maintain long-term romantic relationships. Language allows love to be maintained with deep emotional connections, whereas the mirror neuron system allows the enhancement of empathy and understanding in love. The science behind falling in love begins with the brain. It is to no doubt that love is a mysterious phenomenon that cannot be fully understood. Physical and emotional expressions of romance are triggered by a series involving hormones, from the neural pathways located in the brain. With the connections made through romance, complex insights with the neural mechanisms involved are all thanks to the study of neuroscience. If love is a complex feeling to understand, so are the neural mechanisms involved that trigger a wave of responses through our brain. With the help of neuroscience, it is now possible to understand the mysteries of love and the brain, though complexities linger

There is a wide range of careers and sectors within STEM, but the skill set held by a successful scientist is fairly constant among them all. It may come as a surprise that many of these skills are also key skills of a linguist; however, this is not by chance. Psychologists have, for decades, acknowledged the links between bilingualism and improved learning and communication, and more recently the neuroscience behind these links has been uncovered. One of science’s most influential thinkers once wrote, “Imagination is more important than knowledge. For knowledge is limited, whereas imagination embraces the entire world.” Albert Einstein was a key believer in the importance of creativity in the scientific process, and the sheer volume of his work is a testament to the validity of these beliefs. Science has always been interdisciplinary; you cannot view it (ironically) under a microscope. In order for great discoveries to be made, we must take pieces from all different areas and use a creative approach to find the string that connects them. Behaving similarly to the expected relationship between imagination and science, the regions of the brain involved with creative thinking are usually antagonistic. However, the ability to generate creative ideas is linked to the connectivity between these two regions, the default mode network (DMN) and the inferior prefrontal cortex (IPC), with highly creative individuals having significantly greater connectivity than less creative individuals. Moreover, for those that speak multiple languages, the strength of connectivity of the DMN with various regions of the IPC was greater than that of their monolingual counterparts. This suggests that the creativity of a scientist is likely to be significantly higher if they are able to speak multiple languages. While fluency in a second or third language is incredibly beneficial, just the learning process can aid in developing the skills required for a career in STEM. Whether it’s reaching a diagnosis as a doctor or overcoming obstacles in designs of machines as an engineer, problem solving is, in my opinion, the most important ability you can have within science-related jobs. Being able to identify and solve issues to improve the outcomes of your projects is essential in advancing the field you are working in. The eureka moment when you reach a satisfying conclusion is theorised to be the result of a dopamine release into a brain formation called the nucleus accumbens (NA). This region is responsible for reward processing, motivation and goal-directed behaviour, all vital parts of a scientist’s search for knowledge. The dynamic restructuring model of neuroplasticity (DRM) suggests that with frequent use of a skill, the neural pathways created during the learning of the skill are grown and less efficient pathways are pruned. In language acquisition, this suggests that language learning, and hence the functional changes to the brain, are not linear but increase exponentially with increased experiences with the language. Applying the DRM to the NA, scientists found a positive correlation between the number of bilingual experiences and the volume of the region. Through the lens of Skinner’s reinforcement theory of motivation, put simply, that rewards increase motivation, we can assume that increasing the volume of reward processing regions such as the NA would increase motivation to reach a goal or solve a problem. When you reach this goal, the next challenge you will face is how you should go about sharing your ideas and theories. This is one reason that good communication skills are important in STEM subjects. Furthermore, how we talk about science can be vital in influencing the general public opinion on major political topics, something that has been made clear over recent years. Misinformation on topics including abortion and vaccination can be especially harmful, given the treatment of such issues as debates. Improving science education and providing communication of science to more people can help to reduce this bias towards incorrect ideas. Successful communication is not an innate behaviour but rather one that is developed over time, and it is apparent that being bilingual can increase the rate at which this development occurs. In my own language learning experience, I have noticed that since becoming more comfortable speaking in Spanish, I am also more comfortable speaking in English. I notice subtle nuances in the word choices of others and myself when in conversation, and this has allowed me to adapt my language to better communicate my ideas. It is my view that this is down to the amount of time I’ve spent comparing English and Spanish grammar, finding links and places of contrast between the two and translating back and forth when reading Spanish books. Being someone who sees the world in quite a methodical manner, it was very easy for me to treat Spanish as a science. Memorising grammar tables and looking for logic in cognates was my natural approach; this has changed. With time vocab lists became redundant, replaced by literature and music, and my enjoyment of the subject increased proportionally to my fluency. The creative approach to language acquisition has reflected onto other aspects of my life, such as my ability to understand and explain complex ideas in science subjects, and I hope that this article inspires other scientists to consider taking up a new language.

Whether in flight simulators, surgical robots, or precision motion platforms, the need for accurate and stable control in six degrees of freedom has made the Stewart Platform a cornerstone of modern engineering. First developed in the 1960s, this parallel manipulator remains highly relevant across industries thanks to its compact design, exceptional rigidity, and unparalleled motion control. What’s a Stewart Platform? the Stewart Platform, Acrome Robotics At its core, the Stewart Platform is a mechanical structure that resembles something out of science fiction, like a six legged robotic spider. It consists of a rigid upper platform connected to a fixed base by six independently controlled linear actuators. By precisely adjusting the length of each actuator, the upper platform can move in any combination of translations (up/down, left/right, forward/backward) and rotations (pitch, roll, yaw), giving it six degrees of freedom. Unlike traditional robotic arms, which use a serial chain of joints and are prone to flex and accumulated error, the Stewart Platform’s parallel configuration offers high stiffness and stability. This makes it ideal for applications that demand coordinated, dynamic motion with extreme precision, from industrial machining to advanced medical procedures. Applications Across Industries Now, you may be wondering: where exactly is the Stewart Platform used? Its versatility has led to its adoption in a wide range of industries, each leveraging its unique strengths. Flight Simulation One of the most iconic applications of the Stewart Platform is in full flight simulators. These platforms are designed to replicate the full physical experience of flying an aircraft, a task that requires motion in all six degrees of freedom. The Stewart Platform enables this realism by moving a replica cockpit in perfect sync with visual, audio, and control feedback. This use case gained traction in the early 1960s, when Redifon, a pioneer in simulation technology, began incorporating Stewart Platforms into flight simulators for major aircraft like the Boeing 707, Douglas DC-8, Vickers Viscount, and Lockheed C-130 Hercules. These systems provided pilots with immersive training environments that simulated both aircraft motion and environmental conditions, long before the term “virtual reality” became mainstream. Driving Simulators and Motion Platforms The Stewart Platform also plays a crucial role in driving simulators, which often pair it with large X-Y translation tables to replicate vehicle dynamics. While short-term accelerations, like quick turns or bumps, are simulated by moving the platform itself, long-term forces (such as going uphill or sustained braking) are mimicked by tilting the platform to create the illusion of continuous acceleration. Finding the ideal balance between platform motion and perceptual realism remains an ongoing research challenge in this field. Surgical Robotics Robotic-assisted surgery system, Elixirr Perhaps less widely known, but no less significant, is the Stewart Platform’s role in surgical robotics. In minimally invasive surgeries, where millimeter-level accuracy can mean the difference between success and complication, the Stewart Platform offers surgeons unprecedented control. It can hold and maneuver tools or cameras with surgical precision, filtering out unwanted vibrations or hand tremors in real time. Modern robotic-assisted surgical systems often embed the Stewart mechanism within larger robotic arms or patient positioning systems. For example, an endoscopic camera might be stabilized by a Stewart Platform that tracks and adjusts to the movement of both the patient and the surgeon’s controls. Its compact footprint, rigidity, and precision enable movements that would be difficult, or even impossible, to achieve using traditional mechanical designs. But Where Did It All Begin? The Stewart Platform’s story begins in 1965, when British engineer D. Stewart introduced a revolutionary parallel mechanism intended for aircraft landing gear testing. His paper brought attention to the idea of a six degreeof-freedom motion platform built from six variable-length actuators arranged in a closed-loop configuration. However, credit for the original concept also goes to Eric Gough, who had independently developed a similar mechanism at the Dunlop Rubber Company in the 1950s for tire testing. As a result, many engineers now refer to it as the Gough–Stewart Platform. What began as a mechanical curiosity quickly evolved into a foundational tool across industries. Its unique combination of precision, rigidity, and versatility has enabled innovations in everything from transportation training to advanced medicine and as new frontiers in robotics and virtual environments continue to emerge, the Stewart Platform is likely to remain at the heart of many engineering solutions.

A diagram showing some of the possible ways for a particle to get from A to B. In reality it will simultaneously travel all of these routes For most people, quantum mechanics seems counterintuitive and paradoxical. Whether it’s Schrödinger’s famous cat which is simultaneously alive and dead, or strange entities that behave both like particles and like waves, quantum mechanics is full of strange results that seem nothing like the world around us. But if you’ve ever been busy or lazy, been uncertain or unreliable, perhaps you can relate to the weird and wonderful quantum universe. Imagine placing a tiny particle such as an electron on the table in front of you. If you then looked away and did not interact with this particle you might expect it to stay perfectly still. However, according to quantum mechanics, if you look back the particle may not be exactly where you left it. It could be a few nanometres to the right, or on the other side of the room, or even on the other side of the universe! This is because quantum theory states that a particle can be in a superposition of states, meaning that while you’re looking away from your particle and not interacting with it, it is simultaneously in infinitely many different places. On looking back at your new pet particle, it ‘decides’ on a place to be. Feynman’s Principle of Least Action states that all the possible paths a particle can take, no matter how bizarre or unlikely, can be added together and a resultant probability can be found. By far the highest probability is for the particle to have barely moved, if at all, but there is a small but non-zero chance of it having moved much further. So, if you’ve ever felt so busy that you feel like you’re everywhere simultaneously, or wished you could be in two places at once, maybe you and your strange particle have more in common than you think. But there’s also no need to feel bad about being lazy, quantum particles usually are too, so by staying on the sofa all day, you’re technically just obeying the Least Action Principle! A diagram illustrating how a quibit is a mixure of both states This principle of superposition also applies to states, and this is the basis of quantum computing. In a classical computer, a signal is either 1 or 0, but in a quantum computer, a particle can act as a qubit that’s a mixture of both states. This provides far greater computing power, which makes quantum computing very useful for handling and analysing vast amounts of data, giving it exciting applications in drug development, climate science, and energy storage. So perhaps being confused or undecided isn’t such a bad thing! And if you’ve got a particularly unreliable friend, perhaps they’re just behaving like a quantum particle. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle states that the more accurately you know a particle’s position, the less accurately you know its momentum or velocity. Therefore, if you take an electron and confine it to a small space using an electric or magnetic field, you can accurately determine its position, but there is a high uncertainty in its velocity. In other words, you know where this particle is, but you have no idea where it’s going, much like that one friend at a party who was definitely in the kitchen a few seconds ago, but could now be headed anywhere! An illustration of quantum tunnelling If you like to feel in control of your life, all this talk of inherent randomness and uncertainty in the universe can be quite unnerving. But instead, try to think of it as liberating. Take quantum tunnelling for example. In classical mechanics, if a particle doesn’t have enough energy, there is no way for it to overcome a barrier without gaining any more. However, quantum particles have wave-like properties, and this means there is a chance for them to bypass the barrier completely! So, while quantum mechanics is random and confusing, maybe it can be relatable when you feel uncertain, busy, or even lazy. Perhaps we should all behave a bit more like quantum particles and try to overcome some otherwise impossible barriers, because after all, in the quantum world, nothing is set in stone.

Epistemic Injustice is a term which was coined by Miranda Fricker in 2007, which labels occurrences of being disregarded in your personal lived experience. You aren’t treated as if you are a knower, regardless of your knowledge of an experience, you are brushed off. There are two types of Epistemic Injustice: Testimonial, and Hermeneutical. With Testimonial Injustice, you are not listened to due to prejudice, “surely you can’t know that because you’re too young!”. Hermeneutical Injustice is the label given to the idea that you haven’t been given the correct tools by society to express your experience. A really good way to explain this is when women didn’t have the label “sexual harassment” to explain the unwanted attention they were receiving from people in the workplace. There was a time where the term was unheard of, giving rise to Hermeneutical Injustice. This is the example that Fricker gave in her book Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing. So how does this relate to Healthcare Stigma? Canonically, people in social minorities have been treated with stigma in their healthcare. This means that patients are judged, disbelieved, and treated unequally by healthcare professionals and the wider healthcare system. It can show up in countless ways: women are routinely undiagnosed with Endometriosis; racial stereotypes see Black and Hispanic patients labelled as “less educated”; people experiencing mental illness experience pervasive stigma from the very people who are supposed to heal them. Regardless of the type of social minority a person is in, it seems that they will experience some kind of healthcare stigma. Aren’t healthcare professionals there to treat people with kindness during their care? This stigma doesn’t just create bad experiences, it causes significant harm. People delay care. They stop trusting providers. Their conditions worsen. All because their knowledge of their own bodies and experiences is treated as less credible than that of the healthcare professional. Aren’t healthcare professionals there to treat people with kindness during their care? Whether they experience Testimonial or Hermeneutical Injustice during healthcare, it is a wholly inappropriate and unnecessary experience for people to suffer. By giving people the tools and language they need to communicate their experience, we can help to combat Hermeneutical Injustice. This might mean creating space for new terminology, validating stories that don’t fit in the textbook, or developing systems of care that reflect diverse ways of expressing pain, distress, or need. Testimonial Injustice is tougher to tackle because it requires the listener (the healthcare provider) to confront their own bias and choose to listen differently. It demands humility. It demands change. But it’s not impossible. Understanding epistemic injustice doesn’t just help us describe the harm. It gives us a way to reflect on how we listen, how we care, and how we value the people at the heart of healthcare. Healthcare shouldn’t only be about treating symptoms. It should be about seeing people for who they are and recognising that patients aren't just passive recipients of care, but knowledgeable individuals who understand their own bodies, histories, and lives. That knowledge deserves to be taken seriously. Looking at healthcare stigma through the lens of epistemic injustice helps us see that the issue isn't just clinical: it’s ethical. That’s important, because if something is socially constructed, then it can also be socially challenged and changed. Each of us has a role to play in creating that change. Whether it's through questioning our assumptions, listening more openly, or advocating for others to be heard, we can all help move healthcare closer to what it should be: compassionate, equitable, and grounded in trust. Dignity is not an extra, it’s part of what healing requires. And everyone deserves to be recognised not only as a patient, but as someone who knows.

If you’ve received the COVID-19 vaccine, know someone treated for cancer, or have undergone an X-Ray, then your life has been influenced by HeLa cells: the first immortal human cell line. Since their discovery in 1951, their resulting advances in biomedical research have led to three Nobel prizes, vaccines that have saved millions of lives, the birth of genetic medicine, and many more crucial stepping stones in the biomedical world. Henrietta Lacks But what are these immortal ‘HeLa’ cells? And how did they become immortal? Entering John Hopkins hospital, Virginia, circa 1951, Henrietta Lacks, a young AfricanAmerican mother of 5 was seeking treatment for aggressive cervical adenocarcinoma (cancer). John Hopkins was the only nearby hospital accepting patients of colour. At the time, the standard treatment was radium therapy (this is no longer used due to the long term cell damage it causes). She never complained and always assumed that the doctors knew best. Given that patient consent wasn’t yet formally recognised, Henrietta’s gynecologist, Dr. Richard TeLinde, never asked permission to take a sample of her cervical tissue whilst she was sedated, nor to give some of it to a researcher at the hospital: Dr. George Gey. TeLinde had been taking samples for Gey from any black woman who entered the ward, without their knowledge or consent. At the time, it was believed that as these patients didn’t pay for treatment it was fair to use their bodies for research as a way of payment, regardless of the patients’ knowledge. Dr. George Otto Gey For a long time, Gey had been attempting to grow cells continuously in culture. His attempts thus far had only been unsuccessful, and he was desperate to find a cell line that would grow. Gey had developed a culture medium composed of chicken plasma, calf embryo extract and human umbilical cord blood. He kept Henrietta’s cells in this medium using ‘roller drum technique’ in which a large wooden drum holds small ‘roller tubes’ that slowly and continuously rotate. This is used to imitate the constant motion of blood and fluids in the body. Much to his surprise, the cells not only lived, but doubled every 20-24 hours! Ecstatic with this new discovery, Gey shared samples of HeLa cells with his colleagues, then the country, then the world. Multiphoton fluorescence image of HeLa cells stained with the actin- binding toxin phalloidin (red), microtubules (cyan), and cell nuclei (blue). Nikon RTS2000MP custom laser scanning microscope. Although Henrietta’s radium treatment initially shrank her tumours, they eventually took over her whole body, leaving her weak, immobile and full of agonising pain. She passed away aged 31 on the 4th of October, 1951, unknowing of the extraordinary significance her cells would hold. Beyond Henrietta’s death, HeLa cells were transported all over the globe, with over 50 million tonnes of the cells being replicated. Scientists used them for human cell and cancer research, leading to many crucial advances in technology, medicine, and biology. Over several decades, HeLa cells were: 1950s Mixed with a special liquid that allowed researchers to view and count each chromosome, leading to the discovery that humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes and the beginning of genetic medicine. Helped create the first successful polio vaccine, eventually eradicating polio altogether and saving millions of children from paralysis. Used in one of the first experiments on the effects of X-Rays on human cell growth; laying the groundwork for X-Ray safety precautions and methods practiced today. 1960s Taken aboard some of the very first space capsules; providing initial insight into how space travel would affect astronauts in future missions. Used to study the benefits of hydroxyurea in cancer treatment. Hydroxyurea is now used as a chemotherapy medication for leukemia, head and neck cancer, a painkiller for sickle cell anemia, and more. 1970s Observed to determine how salmonella infects the body; enabling development of new methods to diagnose and treat it. 1980s Used to discover the effects of HPV and how it can lead to certain cancers. Tested with a drug called ‘Camptothecin’, which was found to slow cancer growth and is now a successful form of treatment. Used to study how HIV-AIDS works; later facilitating certain drugs being developed to limit the spread of infections. 1990s – present day Used to discover telomeres; revolutionising the study of aging as we know it. Tested to unveil how thalidomide (an anti-morning sickness drug used by pregnant women) was causing birth defects; helping to end the ‘thalidomide crisis’. This study also helped apply thalidomide to stopping cancer’s effects instead. Helped develop now widely-used microscopic techniques that allow ongoing cell processes to be viewed and analysed. Used in research for the synthesis of the COVID-19 vaccine which put an end to the 2020-2021 pandemics. HeLa cell culture plate While it's important to appreciate the positive impact that these cells have caused, it also can't be forgotten where these cells came from. It wasn't until 25 years after Henrietta passed that her family first learned of how scientists were experimenting on her cells all over the world. THe Lackses were incredibly upset that their mother wasn't being recognised by the medical community. There was some debate over where the ‘HeLa’ name came from (Helen Lane? Heather Lawrence?) as Henrietta Lacks had never been formally recognised as the source of these miraculous cells. Henrietta’s true story finally came to light, 60 years later, through Rebecca Skloot’s book ‘The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks’ (I highly recommend) which was then turned into a film starring Oprah Winfrey. In the book, it was revealed that Henrietta’s family received no compensation and struggle to fund care for various medical issues, while large companies profit greatly from HeLa cells. In 2023, the Lacks family won a significant lawsuit against Thermo Fisher Scientific (a huge biotechnology company profiting greatly from Henrietta’s cells) under the claim that the company was “unjustly enriched’ by its use of HeLa cells. Some of the Lacks family with a statue of Henrietta In the future, the Lacks family’s lawyers are hoping to go after more companies profiting from Henrietta’s cells and finally bring justice to her name. Additionally, this settlement has started an important conversation around medical discrimination and giving patients a property stake in their tissues, and has brought to light many similar cases which could start unjust enrichment lawsuits just like this one.

We have all heard of ‘quantum physics’ but what does it actually mean? Quantum Physics is a branch of science that explores the behavior of matter and energy on the smallest scales, like atoms and subatomic particles. But how can we use this to unlock the mysteries of the mind? The link between quantum physics and unlocking the mysteries of the mind lies in the idea that the brain might operate, or at least be influenced, by quantum processes in some way. A well known theory in the relationship to consciousness is the orchestrated objective reduction. According to this theory, microtubules are structures inside neurons that help maintain their shape in which quantum computations occur in. They are thought to be capable of quantum-level processing, and their quantum states might somehow give rise to consciousness. The idea of objective reduction suggests that quantum events might be "orchestrated" within the brain to give rise to conscious awareness, blending physics and biology in ways that could explain subjective experience. Quantum physics can also be used to explain the unit of consciousness which is the idea that the sense that our thoughts and perceptions are integrated despite being the result of many different processes in different parts of the brain. However, one challenge is the large scale of scepticism surrounding the theory as there is a lack of research that can be conducted due to the challenges of testing quantum effects in the brain, given the warm, wet environment of the brain, which is thought to be hostile to quantum phenomena. This creates the question, could this theory be proven? Therefore, the ongoing exploration of quantum consciousness remains an exciting frontier, and future breakthroughs in both neuroscience and quantum physics might eventually bring us closer to understanding whether quantum mechanics has a role in how our minds work.